While improper execution of the flare manoeuvre has been
implicated in many landing incidents, very few human factors
studies appear to have examined this problem. Our flight simulation
study examined three different visual strategies that pilots could
use to time the flare. On each trial, non-pilots, student pilots or
private pilots were required to judge either: (i) their
time-to-contact with the ground; or (ii) an idealised time to
initiate the flare. Our data provided some support for the
hypothesis that pilots initiate the flare when their perceived
time-to-contact with the ground reaches a critical value. Pilot
performance was generally superior to non-pilot performance.
However, both pilots and non-pilots were found to demonstrate flare
timing biases during impoverished visual conditions (i.e. reduced
depth cues) - indicating that strategies based on perceptions of
environmental distance and/or critical runway angle must also have
played a role. Importantly, very accurate timing judgments were
possible with richer visual displays (i.e. additional depth cues)
that provided performance feedback. Thus, we conclude that
entry-level flight simulators can be used for flare timing training
if certain minimum visual display conditions have been met.��